2.G : Navigation and Flight Planning

Pilotage is navigation by reference to landmarks or checkpoints. This is a method that can be used on any course with adequate checkpoints, but it is most commonly used with dead reckoning and VFR radio navigation. When visibility is low, or there are few identifiable checkpoints, this technique becomes difficult.

Checkpoints selected should be prominent features along the route of flight. This can include roads, rivers, railroad tracks, lakes, towns, and power lines. It should be remembered that new roads and other features are being constructed (and sometimes removed) regularly, so charts may be out of date with respect to reality.

Good selection of checkpoints can make a difference. Select features that will make useful boundaries on both sides of the course. This helps maintain the desired course. Never count on a single checkpoint, and if one is missed maintain heading and look for the next. If a turn is planned, make the turn based on time if a checkpoint is not in sight, and don’t just continue on heading blindly.

Dead reckoning is navigation solely by calculations based on time, speed, distance, and direction. The results provided by this when adjusted for wind speed are heading and ground speed. The calculated heading will guide the plane along the desired course, and the groundspeed will establish the time expected over each given checkpoint (in a perfect world). Except for flight over featureless terrain (such as water) dead reckoning is normally used in conjunction with pilotage. The heading and groundspeed are constantly checked against pilotage, and adjusted as needed. Radio navigation can also be included, where available, so that further precision can be achieved.

This is navigation by use of radio signals to denote the desired flight path. There are traditionally four different radio systems used for cross country navigation: VOR, NDB, LORAN-C, and GPS. The NDB system is being phased out, and the LORAN-C system has been shut down entirely. At this time GPS and VOR are the predominant cross-country radio navigation systems in use.

Over recent years GPS has gained in popularity, and the magenta line has become the primary mechanism used to fly a desired course. Before a flight is undetaken waypoints are entered into the GPS, and these waypoints can be found on a VFR sectional and terminal charts. The GPS will provide information similar to a flight navigation log, and may update details (ETA, fuel burn, etc.) as the flight progresses.

While the GPS is an extremely powerful tool, it is critical that navigational basics be understood, and total reliance on the GPS should not be given. Like any tool the GPS can fail, and if it does fail the ability to fall back on fundamental navigational techniques is paramount. You can’t just pull over and ask directions. The ability to continue by use of pilotage and dead reckoning is necessary.

The plan itself is often realized by the creation of a navigation flight log. This is a list of waypoints/checkpoints which detail each step in the flight, and which have relevant information associated with them. This information would include headings, altitudes, ground speeds, estimated times for each leg, frequencies (if appropriate), and other relevant information. This aggregates all the needed critical information into a single concise format. An example navigation planning log can be downloaded from the following link.

Example Navigation Log

As of June 2017 the FAA transitioned to the International Flight Plan format for all VFR and IFR civil flights within the National Airspace System, and into Canada. Much of the information is identical to what would have been entered in the older FAA domenstic flight plan form, with the biggest changes being in the area of flight rules, type of flight, wake turbulence category, and the aircraft equipment categories.

An indication of the flight rules are always required, and should be entered as "I" for IFR flights and "V" for VFR flights. For a composite flight (IFR then VFR, or VFR then IFR) submit separate flight plans for each portion of the flight under each flight rule. Filing a single flight plan for composite flights (flight rules "Y" or "Z") are not supported at this time.

The type of flight is optional for flights wholly in the US domestic airspace. In case you do need to include the type of flight, indicate as follows.

Encoding for wake turbulence category are indicated as follows.

The aircraft equipment section is where it gets complex. Whereas the FAA domestic flight plan had a single letter to designate the entire avionics package, the ICAO system lets the pilot pick and choose the equipment and capabilities specific to their aircraft. Equipment and capabilities that require indication include: Navigation, Transponder, ADS-B, as well as some additional information which may be required in the remarks section.

There are two parts to the equipment box, the first part being the aircraft equipment followed by a slash and the second portion which is the transponder capability. An aircraft can file with an "S" to indicate "standard equipment" which means VHF radio, VOR, and ILS. The use of "S" removes the need to list these three capabilities separately. No capability is encoded with the letter "N". When there is no navigation, communications, or approach capability then file only the letter "N".

For example, if your aircraft had a VHF radio, VOR and ILS, and IFR approved GPS, are able to accept PBN routes and procedures (PBN being a new concept which encompasses both RNAV and RNP, so if you are using RNAV or RNP for any phase of flight this applies) then the final entry into Box 10 would be SGR/C.

It was mentioned earlier that Remarks may be required for PBN aircraft. By listing PBN ® in your equipment you only notified ATC that your equipment is PBN approved. Since PBN describes many different types of equipment you must also specify what exact equipment is onboard in the Remarks Box, number 18. The majority of piston aircraft will enter PBM/B2C2D2, which translates to :

By listing this code you are telling ATC that you are capable of handling RNAV based approaches for the en route structure and terminal procedures. For more information see the following resources.