Lesson Overview
The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to the learning process as required in the CFI PTS.
References : Aviation Instructor’s Handbook (Chapter(s) : 2)
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| Schedule |
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| Equipment |
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| IP Actions |
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| SP Actions |
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| Completion Standards |
The student understands the learning process and can integrate the knowledge when instructing students. |
Instructor Notes
| Attention |
This will explain why you will or will not remember this lesson. |
| Overview |
Review Objectives and Elements/Key ideas. |
| What |
Understanding how people learn, and applying that knowledge to the learning environment. |
| Why |
As a flight instructor, the ability to effectively teach students is imperative. Understanding how people learn and how to apply that knowledge is the basis for effective teaching. |
Lesson Details
The Learning Theory
A body of principles use to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes. Learning is explained by a combination of two basic approaches: Behaviorism and the Cognative Theory.
Behaviorism
This theory is centered on positive reinforcement, rather than punishment, to achieve the desired learning goals. It stresses the importance of having a desired behavior reinforced to shape what is learned. It is the instructor’s role to provide the reinforcement, and frequent positive reinforcement accelerates the learning process.
Cognitive Theory
This theory focuses on what is (believed to be) going on inside the students mind. The presumption is that learning isn’t just a change in behavior but is also a change in the way a student thinks/understands/feels. There are two major branches of cognitive theory: The Information Processing Model and Constructivism.
The Information Processing Model
This theory postulates that the student’s brain has internal structures which select and processing incoming material, stores/retrieves it, and uses that material to produce behavior. Those structures also process feedback from the new behavior which further refines the model.This involves a number of cognitive processes which include the gathering and representing information (encoding), retaining that information, and recalling the information when needed.
Information is acquired from numerous sources such sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. The shear amount of information received by the brain per second is astoundingly high so the brain must let many routine or habitual things go unnoticed (at least consciously). For example, a pilot using rudder entering a turn may do so unaware that the action is being performed. The unconscious takes charge leaving the conscious brain free to address other issues.
Constructivism
This theory postulates that learning is the result of the learner matching new information to preexisting information and integrating it into meaningful connections. This is not a passive activity but actively builds knowledge and skills, as well as a unique mental image, based on experiences.
Included in this is the acquisition of Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) on the part of the student. Teaching the higher-level thinking skills which are essential to judgment, decision making, and critical thinking are important in aviation since a common theme in aviation accidents is the lack of higher order thinking skills. These skills can be developed by presenting the student with problems or scenarios. Teaching HOTS is accomplished by progressing from simple to complex problems, and from concrete to abstract scenarios. Teaching HOTS effectively can include the following.
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Problem-based learning instruction
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Authentic problems
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Real world problems
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Student centered learning
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Active learning
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Cooperative learning
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Customized instruction to meet the individual learner’s needs
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These strategies engage the learner in some form of mental activity, have the learner examine that mental activity and select the best solution, and challenge the learner to explore other ways to accomplish the task or the problem.
For this to be effective HOTS must be emphasized throughout the program of study and should be continued with any on-going training programs. Cognitive research has shown that the learning of HOTS is not a change in observable behavior but is, instead, the construction of meaning from experience.
The core of HOTS is a technique known as Scenario Based Training (SBT) and is an example of problem based learning and attempts to create real world scenarios from which the student can learn. Scenarios should be adapted to the aircraft being used, and except for the first few lessons the scenarios should be driven by the students. 3. The strength of SBT lies in helping the learner gain a deeper understanding of the information and in the learner improving his or her ability to recall the information. The goal is reached when the material is presented as an authentic problem in an environment that allows the learner to “make meaning” of the information based on past experience and personal interpretation.
Perception and Insight
Initially all learning comes from our perceptions which arrive via our senses. This is a process of giving meaning to the sensory input. It is common for new students to be overwhelmed, and that can cause them to miss critical information. Therefore it is important to direct the perceptions so that the student acquires the appropriate information.
There are many factors that can affect perceptions including the physical attributes of the student, the student’s goals and values, their self-concept, time and opportunity, and finally the element of threat. Each of these areas of impact can play either a positive or negative role in the learning experience.
Ultimately it is desired that the student develop insights into the material being learned. An insight is that 'aha!' moment that can occur during learning. When that occurs the learning becomes more meaningful and more permanent for the student. Helping students develop insight is one of the primary responsibilities of the instructor.
Acquiring Knowledge
There are various levels to the acquisition of new knowledge. The first level is simple memorization, or rote learning. It is generally not good for real problem solving. The next level is understanding where the learner begins to organize knowledge in useful ways and a collection of memorized facts gives way to insights. The next level is concept learning which is the collecting of objects, events, ideas, people, etc. into groups that have items which share major attributes. By grouping in this manner people can create more manageable categories of knowledge.
The Laws of Learning
Laws of learning provide additional insight into what makes people learn most effectively. These laws are denoted with the acronym REEPIR, which is detailed below.
| Readiness |
Students learn best when they are ready to learn. They make more progress when they have strong goals, a clear objective, and a definite reason for learning. There are times when instructors can do little to impact the readiness of a student (i.e. if there are external factors outside of the control of the instructor causing a lack of readiness). |
| Exercise |
Things most often repeated are best remembered. Students learn by applying what they have been taught, and every time (to a point) that practice occurs learning continues. This means it is critical to teach the right actions as primacy principles are strong and bad habits must be caught early. |
| Effect |
Learning is best when accompanied by positive enjoyable feelings, and can be hampered by unpleasant feelings. Where possible provide enjoyable learning experiences for the student. |
| Primacy |
As mentioned above, things learned first often create a virtually unshakable impression. Un-teaching is much harder than teaching things right in the first place. |
| Intensity |
Vivid, dramatic, and exciting learning experiences often teach more than a routine or boring experience. Imagination and creativity can pay off, though the threat of fear should always be avoided. |
| Recency |
Things learned most recently are bset remembered. The further removed time-wise from a new fact/understanding, the more difficult to remember. Repeat, restate, or reemphasize, important points at the end of a lesson to help in remembering. |
Domains of Learning
Along with the basic levels of learning several additional levels have been developed. They are characterized as domains of learning and are the cognitive domain, the affective domain, and the psychomotor domain. These domains are described below.
Cognitive Domain
Often referred to as Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives this domain refers to knowledge which might be gained as the result of attending a ground school, reading about aircraft systems, or listening to a preflight briefing. The highest objective level might be shown by learning to properly evaluate a flight maneuver.
| Objective Level | Action Verbs |
|---|---|
Evaluation |
Assess, evaluate, interpret, judge, rate, score, write |
Synthesis |
Compile, compose, design, reconstruct, formulate |
Analysis |
Compare, discriminate, distinguish, separate |
Application |
Compute, demonstrate, employ, operate, solve |
Comprehension |
Convert, explain, locate, report, restate, select |
Knowledge |
Describe, identify, name, point to, recognize, recall |
Affective Domain
This heirarchy attempts to arrange attitudinal objectives in order of difficulty. Measuring objectives in this domain is not easy, and is generally performed by observance of indirect inferences. One example might be evaluating the student’s attitude regarding safety.
| Characterization | Assess, delegate, practice, influence, revise, maintain |
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Organization |
Accept responsibility, adhere, defend, formulate |
Valuing |
Appreciate, follow, join, justify, show, concern, share |
Responding |
Conform, greet, help, perform, recite, write |
Receiving |
Ask, choose, give, locate, select, rely, use |
Psychomotor Domain
This domain is characterized by the acquisition of physical skills. As physical tasks and equipment become more complex the integration of the cognitive and physical skills becomes important.
| Origination | Combine, compose, construct, design, originate |
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Adaptation |
Adapt, alter, change, rearrange, reorganize, revise |
Complex Overt Response |
Same as below except more highly coordinated |
Mechanism |
Same as below except with greater proficiency |
Guided Response |
Assemble, build, calibrate, fix, grind, mend |
Set |
Begin, move, react, respond, start, select |
Perception |
Choose, detect, identify, isolate, compare |
Characteristics of Learning
Effective learning situations are purposeful, based on experience, multifaceted, and involve an active process (PRMA).
| Purposeful |
In the process of learning the student’s goals are the most important factor. Those goals are what drive student learning, and it is the job ofthe instructor to find ways to relate the new learning to the student’s specific goals. |
| Result of Experience |
The learning process is very individual, and the student can only learn from their own personal experience. Previous experiences can condition a student to respond to certain things, and ignore others. Thus the instructor is challenged to find experiences that are meaningful to the student. If an experience challenges the student and requires involvement with feelings, thoughts, and memory of past experience the lesson can be more effective. To develop sound judgment students need experiences that involve judgment in solving real problems. |
| Multifaceted |
Learning should involve many aspects including verbal elements, conceptual elements, perceptual elements, emotional elements, and problem solving elements all taking place together. While learning one thing the student may well be learning other things at the same time (eg. attitudes about aviation, self reliance, attitudes about safety, etc.). |
| Active Process |
The student must be continuously engaged and playing an active role in the learning process. The desire is to have the student react in an outward active manner to engage them emotionally and intellectually. |
Acquiring Skill Knowledge
There are three stages of acquiring a new skill. The cognitive stage, the associative stage, and the automatic response stage. The cognitive stage is characterized by simple memorization, and step by step procedures. The associative stage is where repeated practice begins to store that new skill. The student can start to assess progress and make adjustments rather than execute rote steps. The automatic response stage is where the execution of steps and reactions to input become automatic freeing the brain to focus on other aspects of the situation.
While acquiring new skills the student must have knowledge of results of their actions. Feedback regarding progress, both good and bad, must be given to the student so they can learn to assess their actions. Flying is a new foreign skill so it is possible for the student to be doing things wrong and have no way to know without correct feedback. With this feedback constant practice can help the student develop fully the new skills.
During the acquisition of new skills it is common to have learning plateaus. They are normal, and temporary, but can be frustrating. One cause of plateaus is over-practice, and if this occurs move away from the task and return to it at a later date.
Types of Practice
There are three types of practice which result in acquiring skills. There is deliberate practice, blocked practice, and random practice.
Deliberate practice is (pretty obviously) where specific tasks are performed and differences between performance and the actual goal are identified. The feedback is focused on eliminating differences between the performance and the ideal outcome.
Blocked practice is a form of deliberate practice where a specific task is performed repeatedly. The goal is to drill until the task becomes automatic.
Random practice mixes up various tasks throughout a practice session. Performing various tasks in random order can lead to better retention.
Along with those types of practice scenario based training can help grow student’s skills. Scenarios are created which resemble the environment in which knowledge and skills are used. A good scenario has a clear set of objectives, are tailored to the needs of the student, and capitalizes on the nuances of the local environment.
Errors
The types of errors made by students are categorized two ways, as slips or as mistakes. A slip is where an action is neglected or confused with something similar. A mistake is where the student does the wrong thing but still succeeds. This is usually caused by a gap in the student’s understanding or incorrectly categorizing a specific situation.
The goal is to reduce error as the student learns. This is done with training and practice, including things like chair flying where actions are performed away from the aircraft (reducing, at times, the pressure of having to perform under pressure). Additionally, working at a pace comfortable for the student, using reminders (i.e. checklists, bugs, notes, etc), developing routines, and regular identification of common errors.
Memory and Forgetting
Learning is all about the brain retaining new information and skills, so memory plays a critical role. Memory is broken into three types: Sensory, Working/Short Term, and Long Term. Each of these types of memory work together to form a complete system of memory.
Sensory Register
The sensory register performs the task of scanning the input information and performing precoding of the data. This processing is affected by preconceived concepts regarding what is and is not important. Other factors can impact how the information is processed. For instance, if the input is dramatic and impacts more than one sense it can make a stronger impression. It is capable of identifying certain stimuli to send to the working memory immediately (such as an immediate reaction to a fire alarm). This action is called precoding.
Working or Short Term
Within seconds of receiving input from the sensory register, relevant info may temporarily remain or rapidly fade, depending on individual priorities. Repetition of the information and sorting or categorization into chunks help with retention of the information. This action is called coding and usually takes 5-10 seconds, but if interrupted can cause the information to be lost after about 20 seconds. This memory is both time limited and capacity limited, though the time limitation can be overcome somewhat by repetition (i.e. repeating a phone number multiple times to help remember it long enough to dial). The coding process may involve recoding to adjust information to individual experiences, and this is where learning begins to take place. Developing a logical process for coding information is a significant step in the learning process.
Long Term Memory
This is where information is stored for future use. For it to be useful special effort must have been expended during the coding process. One of the major responsibilities of the instructor is to help students use their memories effectively. Use speech, audio cues, and other aids recognizing that the more senses are involved the greater the effectiveness.
Retention of Learning
The instructor’s goal is to make certain that the student’s learning is readily available for recall. Praise and associating each bit of information or action with something to be learned promotes remembering. Learning with all our senses and meaningful repetition promote recall.
Transfer of Learning
The primary goal of the instructor is to promote positive transfer of knowledge. Positive transfer occurs when learning skill A (i.e. slow flight) helps in the learning of skill B (i.e. landings). Negative transfer is when learning skill A hinders learning skill B (landing a plane versus a helicopter). A degree of transfer is involved in all learning since all learning is based on prior experience. People interpret new things in light of what they already know.
Positive transfer can be aided by making positive transfer a primary goal, making sure that the student knows certain things learned can be applied in other situations, maintaining a high order of standards in training, and using materials that helps form valid concepts and generalizations, and makes relationships clear.
With positive knowledge transfer habits will be formed. The instructor needs to direct that habit formation such that correct/proper habit patterns are created.
Levels of Learning (Not in PTS)
Learning is divided into four different levels. They are, in increasing order of depth/complexity :
- Rote Learning
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The ability to repeat something that has been taught without deep understanding or being able to apply it to general situations.
- Understanding
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Insight into what has been taught where the student consolidates old and new perceptions into an insight.
- Application
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The student understands the material/technique, can apply it to situations, and has practiced it until they can do so consistently. But don’t stop here!
- Correlation
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The student can correlate what has been learned with things previously learned, and can apply those insights to broader categories of activities (i.e. correlate the elements of a turn with performing lazy eights and chandelles).
Conclusion
The learning process is complex and involves cognitive, psychological, and psychological elements. Understanding the relationships between all these elements and their relationship with the learning process can inform how an instructor approaches the teaching challenge.
ACS Requirements
To determine that the applicant exhibits instructional knowledge of the learning process by describing:
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Learning theory.
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Perceptions and insight.
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Acquiring knowledge.
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The laws of learning.
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Domains of learning.
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Characteristics of learning.
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Acquiring skill knowledge.
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Types of practice.
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Scenario-based training.
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Errors.
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Memory and forgetting.
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Retention of learning.
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Transfer of learning.